– The first thing that comes to mind is 1547, Mikolaj “the Black” Radziwill taking 30 thousand golden sovereigns – part of the dowry of Sigismund Augustus's (King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania) late wife Elisabeth of Habsburg – to Vienna and the Holy Roman Emperor bestowing on him the title of the Prince of Biržai and Dubingiai. Does that mean that, at that time, Vienna was among the most important European capitals for us? What other royal seats were of key importance? Moscow, Konigsberg, Stockholm, Prague?
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| BFL nuotr./Jūratė Kiaupienė |
– Depending on the period, relations with Moscow have always played a part. And , of course, with Tatar hordes. Polish historian Dariusz Kolodziejczyk has recently published a thick volume that includes most of surviving diplomatic documents describing the Grand Duchy's relations with the Tatars. It was through them that the Grand Duchy's diplomats entered the Turkish Ottoman Empire. In the second half of the 16th century, on the outset of wars over Livonia, we make our entrance into the Baltic sea diplomacy where Stockholm plays the leading role.
We had contacts with France. When the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth elected Henri Valois, brother of the King of France, as its sovereign, the delegation that left for Paris to bring the new king included two representatives from Lithuania: Mikolaj Krzysztof “the Orphan” Radziwill, only Court Marshal at the time, and Alexander Pronsky. The Orphan was accompanied by his brother Jerzy and nine noblemen, Pronsky by six.
Prince Radziwill was entrusted with a serious diplomatic mission – while in the French Court, to show in his deportment as well as words that he is representing a sovereign state, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Despite his young age, Radziwill comes to Paris earlier than the rest and secures an audience in the court before the rest of the delegation. The Lithuanian gets into an argument with the Poles in Paris, because the Orphan wishes to speak to the king separately, on Lithuania's behalf: “So that our Seigneur, the elected Sovereign, does not think that this State of ours is any less than Your Poland, so that I, its envoy, do not stand among You like a column listening to dedications and greetings in the name of the Polish Crown.”
His peculiar diplomatic language emerges during this quarrel with Polish envoys: the arguments that the Orphan uses to defend Lithuania's interests.
– What impression did Paris leave on the Lithuanians? The Orphan's uncle, Mikolaj “the Brown” Radziwill, says about Paris that “these are other countries.” The Orphan himself, having travelled a lot around the world, advises his cousin not to send his son to study there. He speaks rather negatively about the Queen of England, nor does he like Germany. It seems that 16-century Lithuanians saw Paris as a much more dreadful place than some backwaters in Rus?
– I would not like to compare Paris to backwaters of Rus. Paris, though, was a tough nut to crack to diplomats from the Grand Duchy and elsewhere alike. 16-century France was growing reluctant to speak Latin, the language of international politics in the West, so anyone who wanted to go to Paris had to learn French, while very few people in the Grand Duchy spoke the language. One of them was Pronsky, who accompanied the Orphan to Paris.
Moreover, it was a challenge to be admitted to the French royal court. The Orphan succeeded in August 1573. We have preserved the “diary” of the mission, but there is no mention about what channels he used to get into the court. What is clear is that his fluency in Italian allowed the Orphan to become friends with Henri Valois. The latter spoke poor Latin, but knew Italian, the language of his mother Catherine de' Medici.
– How many languages would a nobleman in 16-17 century Lithuania normally speak?
– In addition to their mother tongue, they would normally speak the dominant languages of the region – Polish, Ruthenian, German – and the language of international communication, Latin. The Chodkiewiczi, the Radziwills, and other noble families of the Grand Duchy would send their offspring to study in foreign universities. There are surviving letters with instructions, primarily concerning the learning of languages. It was a necessary skill. 1573 kicks off the period of elected kings. In 1576, (Hungarian) Stephen Bathory is elected to rule the Republic – he did not initially speak any Polish, only Latin.
Children of noble families would usually leave for studies at 13 or 14. It was tough to learn how to take part in the running of the state – and there were also family estates to manage. One of the young Chodkiewicz was very unhappy when his father died and he was forced to come back home to manage the estate. He would have given everything to avoid running all the house business.
– One of the destinations that the Chodkiewiczi and the Radziwills would send their offspring to learn was the court of the Grand Duke of Prussia. It took eleven days to reach it from Vilnius.
– Yes, Konigsberg was another direction of our diplomacy. Especially after Albrecht von Hohenzollern turned the state of the Teutonic Order into a secular duchy. The King of Prussia was cousin to Sigismund Augustus. He had links to the Radziwills through Reformation. Not to mention lands in Lithuania Minor and its people!
Our diplomats worked everywhere, even in London. It seems that it was mostly Lithuanians who represented the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in London in the 18th century.
The Austrian Habsburgs were the Lithuanian diplomats' link to the Spanish Habsburgs. In general, there was a need to interact with the house of Habsburgs who were, before the Jagiellon dynasty died out, constant competitors for the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary.
Moreover, starting with Casimir (1427-1492), so many men of the Jagiellon family married Habsburg daughters. And Radziwill the Black did not just go to Vienna to bring those 30 thousand golden sovereign – he was an ardent matchmaker between Sigismund Augustus and Catherine of Habsburg, sister of his late wife Elisabeth. In the wedding per procura, he represented Sigismund Augustus and symbolically lay with the bride.
There are surviving letters written by Radziwill, where he expresses the horror he felt about the ceremonies he had to attend and even to dance – something he was not at all happy with. But such were the requirements for diplomats at the time – so he had to learn the ceremony and abide by it.
– We know that there was an Envoy Service since the times of Casimir. What was it like?
– An organization somewhat resembling the modern diplomatic service emerges in the second half of the 15th century, in Italy. The Chancellor of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the man in charge of the Chancellery, was also the head of diplomacy. In this sense, one of the most outstanding chancellors was Leon Sapieha. He was an experienced diplomat and made many trips to Moscow.
– As far as we know, there was no permanent Lithuanian representation in Moscow. Did we have anything resembling present-day embassies in the European capitals?
– Even in Western Europe, rudimentary embassies did not emerge before the early 16th century. There are nothing like permanent embassies to speak of before the 18th century, but it would not be accurate to call them our representations – it was the diplomatic service of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In 16-century Western Europe, there was already nothing comparable to large delegations of envoys presenting opulent gifts to Moscow. It is an eastern custom – to send many people, merchants, noblemen, spies, a very colourful crowd. Muscovites to Vilnius, Lithuanians to Moscow. Interesting to note that in Moscow, they would first examine the inventory of gifts – the list of what the foreigners brought. Some presents would not even be accepted.
Tsar Boris Godunov refused to receive Sapieha's delegation for a long time in 1600 – saying his finger hurt or giving some other excuse. And all the while the guests had to stay in homes of Moscow envoys. So then Sapieha wrote a letter to the tsar, saying his gifts could go bad, horses would die. And what do you know – the tsar, aware that he could lose wealth, rushes the reception.
– How often would Lithuanians exchange delegations with Moscow? After wars?
– Not exclusively. Sure, the grand delegations would be sent upon expiration of armistice, but mutual visits happened routinely. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had much business with Moscow.
– What about the Khanate of Crimea and the Tatars of Kazan – did they also stick to the style of Muscovite delegations?
– Yes, but less pompous than the grand delegations to Moscow. But Lithuanians would bring gifts to the Tatars, too. Trips to Crimea were very risky. Envoys often died. In the 16th century, a diplomat could be stopped at any time, robbed, imprisoned. It would not happen just to our diplomats. Relations with the Tatars were very complex – they would often change allegiance.
– And how would they speak to the Tatars?
– In Ruthenian. Tatars plundered Ruthenian lands not just for material goods. They would take Ruthenian boys into captivity and raise them so they spoke both languages and served as interpreters. It is possible that we, too, had Tatar prisoners who spoke both languages, but correspondence would be carried out in Ruthenian.
– Let's try to draw a portrait of a 16-17-century Lithuanian diplomat. He must speak multiple languages, know different cultures, the etiquette. Is he an intellectual or more of an adventurer – a nobleman in search of a position?
– All these things at once. It was impossible to become a diplomat if you did not have a wealth of knowledge, intelligence, be fluent in foreign languages. Adventurism was also a must – after all, it was a dangerous profession. Besides, there was a pan-European belief at the time that a diplomat must be someone who is agreeable, uncapricious, civil, well-bred, able to communicate with people from all strata. And also someone who knows how to eat.
Sapieha's delegation in Moscow were aghast when they saw Russians eating with their hands at a reception. Lithuanians also found it unacceptable that Russians only served vodka, no wines. Russians could not understand why Lithuanians were unhappy. Lithuanians, in turn, were surprised that there were no silverware on the table – and how could one eat food without seasoning!
– Silverware presented a challenge not just to Muscovites but to Finns as well. When Sigismund Augustus's sister Catherine married Swedish prince John Vasa, her husband organized an exhibition of his bride's dowry for the Finnish noblemen. They were most puzzled by silver forks.
– Bona Sforza (Italian wife of Polish King Sigismund I the Old) arrived in Vilnius with her court, which means that Italy is present in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since the 1610s. It influenced the culture of diplomacy, too.
